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After freeing themselves from Mongol domination by 1480, the Russians pushed eastward. Russia, with its Byzantine-influenced culture, had been unimportant in world affairs before the fifteenth century Russia's Expansionist Politics under the Tsars. During the fourteenth century, the duchy of Moscow took the lead in liberating Russia from the Mongols. Ivan Ill gave his government a military focus and used a blend of nationalism and the Orthodox Christian religion Creating a large independent state The Need for Revival Mongols had not reshaped basic Russian culture.However, reduced the vigor of cultural and economic life Literacy declined and the economy became purely agricultural and dependent on peasant labor. Ivan Ill restored the tradition of centralized rule, added a sense of imperial mission, and claimed supervision of all Orthodox Churches Russia, asserted Ivan, had succeeded Byzantium as the Third Rome. Ivan IV continued the policy of expansion He increased the power of the tsa r by killing many of the nobility (boyars)†earning the name of Ivan the Terrible Patterns of Expansion. Territorial expansion focused on central Asia.By the sixteenth century, they moved into Western Siberia Peasant adventurers (cossacks) were recruited to occupy the new lands. Loyal nobles and bureaucrats received land grants in the territories The conquests gave Russia increased agricultural regions and labor sources Slavery existed into the eighteenth century Important trading connections opened with Asian neighbors. Russia eliminated independent central Asia as a source of nomadic invasions Russia became a multicultural state. The large Muslim population was not forced to assimilate to Russian culture. Western Contact and Romanov PolicyThe tsars, mindful of the cultural and economic lag occurring under Mongol rule, also began a policy of carefully managed contacts with the West. Ivan Ill dispatched diplomatic missions to leading Western states under Ivan ‘V, British merchants established trading contacts. Italian artists brought in by the tsars built churches and the Kremlin, creating a distinct style of architecture When Ivan IV died without an heir early in the seventeenth century, the Time of Troubles commenced. The boyars tried to control government, while Sweden and Poland seized territory. In 1613, the oyars chose a member of the Romanov family, Michael, as tsar.The Time of Troubles ended without placing lasting constraints on the tsar's power. Michael restored internal order, drove out the foreign invaders, and recommenced imperial expansion. Alexis Romanov increased the tsar's authority by abolishing the because conservative believers resisted changes to their established rituals. The government exiled these â€Å"Old Believers† to Siberia or southern Russia. Russia's First westernization, 1690-1790 Peter l, the Great, continued past policies but added a new interest in changing the conomy and culture through imitation of Western forms.It was the first Westernization effort in history Peter traveled incognito to the West and gained an interest in science and technology Many Western artisans returned with him to Russia. Tsarist Autocracy of Peter the Great Peter was an autocratic ruler; revolts were brutally suppressed. Reforms were initiated through state decrees. Peter increased the power of the state through recruitment of bureaucrats from outside the aristocracy and by forming a Western-type military force A secret police was created to watch over bureaucracy Foreign policy followed existing patterns.A successful war with Sweden gave Russia a window on the Baltic Sea, allowing it to be a major factor in European diplomatic and military affairs Capital moved to Baltic city of St. Petersburg. What Westernization Meant Peter's reforms influenced politics, economics, and cultural change. The bureaucracy and military were reorganized on Western principles. The first Russian naw was created The councils of nob les were eliminated and replaced by advisors under his control Law codes were systematized and the tax system reformed to increase burdens on the peasantry metallurgical and mining industries were expandedCultural reforms aimed at bringing in Western patterns to change old customs. Nobles had to shave their beards and dress in Western style He succeeded in bringing the elite into the Western cultural zone The condition of upper class women improved No attempt was made to form an exporting industrial econom Westernization meant to Peter the encouragement of autocratic rule These changes brought resistance from all classes. Consolidation under Catherine the Great Several decades of weak rule followed Peter's death in 1724.Significant change resumed during the reign of Catherine (1762-1796). She used the Pugachev peasant rebellion as an excuse to extend central government authority Catherine was also a Westernizer and brought Enlightenment ideas to Russia She gave new power over serfs to the nobles in return for their service in the bureaucracy and military Catherine continued patronage of Western art and architecture, Russian expansionist policies continued. By the time of her death, Russia had completed an important transformation.Over three centuries the tsars created a strong central state ruling over the world's greatest land empire. New elements from the West had entered and altered Russia's conomy and culture. Themes in Early Modern Russian History Serfdom and a deep-rooted peasant culture did not mesh with Westernization efforts. The Russian nobility, through state service, maintained a vital position Smaller, incompletely Westernized landowners lived less wealthy lives.Serfdom: The Life of East Europe's Masses Before the Mongol conquest, Russia's peasantry had been relatively free. The government from the sixteenth century encouraged serfdom A 1649 act made serfdom hereditary; other seventeenth and eighteenth century laws tied serfs to the land and augme nted the legal rights of landlords. Serfs were almost slaves; they were bought, sold, and punished by owners. Peasant conditions were similar in Eastern Europe. Peasants labored on large estates to produce grain for sale to the West.Western merchants in return brought the serfs' owners manufactured and luxury items. Peasants did have some rights; village governments regulated many aspects of life Most peasants remained poor and illiterate They paid high taxes and performed extensive labor services in agriculture, mining, and manufacturing Trade and Economic Dependence. There were few large cities in Russia; 95% of the population was rural Artisans also ere few, since most manufacturing was rurally based. Small merchant groups existed, but most trade was handled by Westerners.Peter the Great's reforms increased trade, yet the nobility managed to prevent the emergence of a strong commercial class. Russia's social and economic system had strengths. It produced adequate revenue for the expanding empire, supported the aristocracy, and allowed significant population growth. Commerce was carried on with independent central Asian regions. Agricultural methods remained traditional, and peasants lacked incentives to increase production for the benefit of landlords.Social Unrest By the end of the eighteenth century, Russian reformers were criticizing their nation's backwardness and urging the abolition of serfdom. Peasant discontent was more significant Peasants remained loyal to the tsar, but blamed landlords for the harshness of their lives. Periodic rebellions occurred from the seventeenth century The tsar and nobility triumphed, but peasant discontent remained a problem In Depth: Multinational Empires During the early modern period, Russia created the longest-lasting multinational empire The Mughal Empire ended during the nineteenth centurySpecial characteristics of the Russian Empire were the presence of a large core of ethnic groups prepared to spread widely and es tablish new settlements Russian ability to adopt Western techniques. Such states included minority ethnicities but developed methods to achieve national unity. From the nineteenth century onward, there have been serious clashes between national loyalties and multinational empires Russia and Eastern Europe Regions west of Russia formed a fluctuating borderland between western and eastern European interests In the Ottoman Balkans, trade with the West spread Enlightenment concepts.Poland and the Czech and Slovak areas were a part of the Some Eastern regions were participants in the Protestant Reformation Many of the smaller states lost political autonomy. The largest state, Poland, was linked to the West by shared Roman Catholicism By 1600, Polish aristocrats weakened the central government and exploited peasants Urban centers and a merchant class were lacking The kingdom was partitioned by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Global Connections: Russia and the World The Russian empire was di fferent from those in the West, but its effect was enormous on two continents in this era.