Wednesday, October 30, 2019

Business economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business economy - Essay Example This will bring them to the Sainsbury store, aside from the fact that Sainsbury is the only supermarket with all sorts of food and other available product in that area. On the other side there is Oxford Street which has a huge amount of employees and costumer. Again for the same reason people would prefer to shop in Sainsbury store. Two major determinants of demand are at work in this situation: population and absence of related services. First, we expect Sainsbury to have higher demand since the population in the area is large (Fao Corporate). Given that it is the meeting place of two major streets, the location can be conveniently reached by many consumers. Second, the absence of related services provides no rivals for the services given by Sainsbury (Mankiw). This also increases the demand for this particular store. However, the problem with the service is the absence of self-serve cashiers. Given a higher demand for the service, this would mean that people will always have to queue when paying. Queues in this particular store are usually long and given that people have to use their nectar cards, it would take long before they can finish their transactions. This is a lack of service thereby reducing customer convenience. Certainly, inconvenience is one that can possibly drive the demand down. Employees 2. Upon observation, I realized that employees are not skilled enough or properly coordinated. Apparently, the planning and design of the employees' tasks were not properly done, so that when the store gets so busy, the employees fail to help each other, thus the problem of long queues cannot be addressed. Employees were not trained enough to do the tasks of others in case some experience a problem. This makes the operation paralyzed whenever the number of customers increases beyond usual. Size 3. The size of the store is very much important in delivering the service. Given that there is a large population of buyers in this particular store, it is necessary to also expand the floor area. This is a problem with Sainsbury since the area of the store remains small, compared to the number of possible customers. This problem has many possible bad effects. First, a small store area against the number of customers will bring inconvenience to the shoppers. Instead of enjoying their shopping experience, customers might feel it a burden. Second, this prevents the store from maximizing the existing demand for the product. Third, this will be a problem if a competitor builds a bigger store in the future. Sainsbury might find them divested of customers. Part Two In today's retail market, evermore discerning customers are requiring a wider range of goods and services. Increasing competition is putting profit margins under pressure and businesses across the industry must learn to manage objectives and resources professionally, efficiently and effectively. There are many factors and circumstances affecting the industry and as a result retail executives must consider fundamental solutions to their businesses in order to secure success in the market place. In order to achieve this, a large retailer such as Sainsbury's Supermarkets Limited (SSL) must improve customer service and meet customer demands continuously taking into account

Monday, October 28, 2019

Between White and Roberts Essay Example for Free

Between White and Roberts Essay Between the descriptive essay Once More to the Lake by E.B. White, and the narrative essay How to Say Nothing in 500 Words by P.M. Roberts I find the descriptive essay to be far more interesting to read for the way it is written appeals to the senses of the reader. Both essays, however, carry good merit and are written very well. The essay that is currently being presented is an interpretation of the similarities and differences between the styles of these two essays, and the impact they have on the reader as well. Among the major differences between the two essays is the way they are structured. In the essay â€Å"How to Say Nothing in 500 Words† Roberts uses nine different headings relating to the key elements of what he is writing about. He breaks down each component of what he considers to be good practices of writing with each section consisting of its own idea. He uses this method to present multiple ideas pertaining to the same general subject of the essay. Using headings to separate ideas and points is a good way to present information clearly, but it also gives a paper an impersonal and formal feeling that most casual or average readers do not relate to. In â€Å"Once More to the Lake†, however, White does not separate ideas into different headings. The story he tells in his essay progresses forward without being broken up into multiple ideas, and the general subject does not change throughout the essay in any major way. The entire essay reads like it is its own chapter of a book. It provides the reader with a fluent story from start to finish. Another large difference between these two essays is in the tone and language that the authors use. Roberts uses a mostly formal tone and language throughout most of his essay. There are a few places in which he uses mild humor to keep the readers’ interest, but his dry tone mixed with the subject his essay is centered on limits the effectiveness of his attempts. One such attempt at humor is where he speaks of a college  professor grading essays in the sentence, â€Å"As he reads paper after paper all saying the same thing in almost the same words, all bloodless, five hundred words dripping out of nothing, he wonders how he allowed himself to get trapped into teaching English when he might have had a happy and interesting life as an electrician or a confidence man.† (P.M. Roberts) He has a very dry sense of humor that leaves the reader wondering why he even makes the attempt at humor in many cases. White uses an informal tone in his essay, and uses language that appeals to the readers’ senses. He makes no attempts at humor in his essay like Roberts does, but he instead paints pictures of scenery with words in exuberant detail. The depth and detail with which he writes stirs the readers’ emotions and memories in the way he tells of his own memories. He takes the mind of the reader on a journey with him as he recounts memories of his childhood. The tone he uses is one that is somber and serious, but also quite casual. â€Å"Summertime, oh summertime, pattern of life indelible, the fade proof lake, the woods unshatterable, the pasture with the sweet fern and the juniper forever and ever, summer without end; this was the background, and the life along the shore was the design, the cottages with their innocent and tranquil design, their tiny docks with the flagpole and the American flag floating against the white clouds in the blue sky, the little paths over the roots of the trees leading from camp to camp and the paths leading back to the outhouses and the can of lime for sprinkling, and at the souvenir counters at the store the miniature birch-bark canoes and the post cards that showed things looking a little better than they looked.† (E.B. White) It is with the use of this kind of language that White fills the writing canvas, as well as the reader’s thoughts, with the detailed images of the surroundings of the lake. The subject matter between the essays by Roberts and White is yet another drastic difference. â€Å"How to Say Nothing in 500 Words† is an informative narrative essay about what to, and what not to do in the writing of a college essay. It is a strictly academic essay. It covers a number of points of what kind of language and ideas to use in a college level paper. The section of his essay that he names â€Å"Call a Fool a Fool† can easily be summarized as him trying to get across that one should say what they think of a matter regardless of what they think the instructor grading the paper or anyone else that might read it would think of what you have to say. He  basically states that if it is your opinion, then state it without worrying that it may offend anyone that may not share the same view. The subject matter of Roberts’ essay is a topic that only a college student would truly care to read about. The subject matter of the essay by White, however, is nearly as far in the other direction as you can get from Roberts’ essay about writing an essay about college football. White’s essay â€Å"Once More to the Lake† is about his visit with his son back to the same lake that his own father took him to every summer with his family while he was growing up. He describes in detail the changes that have occurred in the many years since he had been back to the lake, and the times he had with his family in his youth as well as the time he is spending there now with his own son. â€Å"Inside, all was just as it had always been, except there was more Coca Cola and not so much Moxie and root beer and birch beer and sarsaparilla. We would walk out with a bottle of pop apiece and sometimes the pop would backfire up our noses and hurt. We explored the streams, quietly, where the turtles slid off the sunny logs and dug their way into the soft bottom; and we lay on the town wharf and fed worms to the tame bass. Everywhere we went I had trouble making out which was I, the one walking at my side, the one walking in my pants.† (White E.B.) The way he describes and speaks of his surroundings and the small adventures that he and his son embark upon makes it evident that he truly cares about the story he has written, and that the entire compositio n is a nostalgic journey through his past and present. The feelings that he clearly has while writing his essay is something that nearly any reader can relate to. Now that the major contrasting points between the two essays have been presented we should move on to the similarities, but there are next to no similarities at all. The most prominent similarity between them is simply the fact that both compositions are considered essays. They are written in completely different styles on completely different subjects, and with a completely different reading audience in mind. It can be said, however, that both essays are properly written for their intended audience, and one could also argue that the essays are similar in regards to the fact that both essays give the reader something to think about after having read the compositions, but that would be reaching very far to find some form of similarity simply for the sake of being able to say that they are similar in some fashion. It is easy to say  that the two essays contrast in major ways, but it is not so easy to say that they compare in any significant way. The essays â€Å"How to Say Nothing in 500 Words† by P.M. Roberts, and â€Å"Once More to the Lake† by E.B. White are both well written, but the descriptive essay by White is the superior of the two for his use of easily understood descriptive language and the seamless flow of his ideas and thoughts on the paper making for an easy and enjoyable read. His essay is also written about a subject that nearly any reader can relate to in some way while the essay by Roberts is aimed more at a particular demographic. Roberts also uses a â€Å"matter of fact† kind of tone that if he had not introduced a dash of humor here and there throughout his essay would have made it too technical to keep the average reader interested enough to read the whole composition while the essay by White draws the reader in and leaves them wanting more. The essay â€Å"Once More to the Lake† by E.B. White is a timeless piece of literature that the writer of this essay strongly recommends to any reader. References Roberts, P. M. (n.d.). How to say nothing in 500 words. Retrieved from https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Gw_UcMT4u-ZSW7ZBN_RAMspZFex6o83oIbnvtuV-CM8/edit?pli=1 White, E.B. Once more to the lake. Retrieved from http://www.freewebs.com/lanzbom/EBWhiteLakeEssay.pdf

Saturday, October 26, 2019

Economic Disparity and Policies Lead to Prison Essay --

Introduction According to Marc Mauer, (1998) the prisoners detained in US jails close to half of the prison inmates are African-Americans, as compared to others (Marc Mauer, 1998). It is fared that if current policies and the state of economic disparity remain in place, it is likely that the number of this unfortunate community / minorities will increase over the next few years and the economic disorder will keep increasing the economic and racial disparities and the state of imprisonment will grow even further. The situation as is being anticipated, despite the drop in crime in recent years, may easily be said to be largely fueled by the element of poverty and the harsher sentencing policies that have resulted in more recurrent and frequent prison terms for African Americans. Marc Mauer, (1998) has opined in his article under reference that if African Americans continue to be met with the same kind treatment they are likely to continue to be drug offenders and continue to represent a substantial proportion of the prison population. The policies based on racial discrimination have been another grey area and the gap in our policies, will further affect minorities who have already been disproportionately affected by economic disparities and weak drug enforcement practices and policies. Effects of Economic Disparity and Policies on African Americans African Americans in US society have unequal access to basic necessities and other resources; due to poor economic conditions. Moreover they are being excluded from access to basic resources, and are being subjected to the degrading treatment, which causes lot of hatred and discontentment in them. The logical question that rises in every body’s mind is about the future of this communit... ...for a poor man to get due justice. The only alternate then left with him is to go for some extra ordinary act that could fetch him some money or otherwise guaranteed piece of bread in prison. References Atiq Rahman, (1998) Environment and the poor Focused action, greater attention needed The Independent (Internet Edition) retrieved from http://www.independent-bangladesh.com/news/jan/30/30012003pd.htm Internet Article, (2003) Economic Justice in America retrieved from http://www.ppjr.org/econjust/ News Release, (1997) Study of African American children in Texas shows some improvements, but many children still at risk Released October 1, 1997 A project of the Center for Public Policy Priorities 900 Lydia Street Austin, Texas Marc Mauer, (1998) Racial Disparities Hartford, Connecticut The Sentencing Project Presented to Council of State Governments June 12, 1998

Thursday, October 24, 2019

In view of what we know of Beatrice and Benedick from Act I and Act II, Scene I, how realistic is Don Pedro’s aim to bring them together?

Beatrice and Benedick are the two major characters in ‘Much Ado About Nothing' that provide comic relief. Their ‘merry wars' of words and phrases as described by Leonato, are frequently throughout the play examples of Shakespeare's magnificent ability to bring about amusement in his plays. In Act I and Act II scene I, Beatrice and Benedick are reunited after Benedick and the other soldiers return from war. Beatrice almost instantly jumps into a frenzy of lyrically punishing Benedick, who after a war of men begins a war of words. From the beginning of the play even before Beatrice and Benedick begin their battle of wit, it is evident to the audience that she has some kind of strong feelings for him, whether they are feelings of hate or of lust or of something in between or that they. Thought their insults are biting, their ability to maintain such clever, interconnected sparring seems to illustrate the existence of a strong bond between them. This is shown when the messenger arrives to bring the news that the war is won and the heroes are soon to return. The conversation focuses on Count Claudio and his bravery, ‘the figure of a lamb, the feats of a lion,' however Beatrice almost instantly changes the subject by asking the messenger if ‘Signior Mountanto returned from the wars or no?' Although this is an insult, it is evident that Beatrice could not wait to find out how Benedick was. The audience are instantly given the impression that she disguises her feelings for him. She continues talking about Benedick with the messenger and Leonato, who states that ‘There is a kind of merry war betwixt Signior Benedick and her; they never meet, but there's a skirmish of wit between them'. Beatrice argues back that ‘in our last conflict, four of his five wits went halting off†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.He hath every month a new sworn brother†¦.he wears his faith but as the fashion of his hat,' meaning that he has no true friends and he changes his faith as often as he changes his hat. To add to this, the other soldiers who return from battle, who bear prominence in the play are Don Pedro and Claudio. Claudio is instantly paired up with Hero, although this does not officially happen until the party later that night, on stage and in films they stare at each other as if love struck. The same goes to Beatrice and Benedick at the reunion, except they do not stare at each other as if love struck but moreover as if they cannot wait to resume their ‘merry war'. This feeling becomes quite obvious when Beatrice speaks almost instantly after Benedick enters the conversation, it is as if he cannot be part of something without her being part of it as well, even if she is bullying him. Shortly after everyone leaves the stage apart from Benedick and Claudio. Claudio expresses how Hero has caught his eye and Benedick dismisses her as ‘too short'. From this conversation we learn that Benedick thinks he will never fall in love and does not believe in marriage. ‘I will do myself the right to trust none; and the fine is, for the which I may go the finer, I will live a bachelor', in turn this casts a shadow of doubt over any forecasts that members of the audience could have made about Beatrice and Benedick being paired up. However, from the beginning it is obvious that Benedick is an entertaining character and unlike his counterparts Don Pedro and Claudio, what he says is not taken especially seriously. Furthermore, at the beginning of Act II Scene I Beatrice also reveals herself as anti-marriage, ‘Just if he send me no husband; for which I am upon my knees every morning and evening.' She adds to this statement by stating that she imagines married people go to hell and single people do not, however in addition to this she says, ‘he shows me where the bachelors sit, and there live we as merry as the day is long,' this suggests that she hopes to have some kind of fun with bachelors in the future which brings us back to Benedick's belief that he will always remain a bachelor. From the end of Act I and the beginning of Act II Scene I we have learnt that both Beatrice and Benedick possess anti-marriage views, but given that they are both histrionic and insecure characters, nothing can be taken for granted. It is noticeable that Beatrice talks about Benedick a lot and often in conversations about subjects that bear no relation to him, she finds a way of interpreting the conversation to make him the fundament – usually criticising him of course. For example at the very beginning of Act II when Leonato and Antonio are having a conversation about Don John's absence at supper, she compares him with Benedick abruptly. This furthers the readers/ members of audience beliefs that she has an interest in Ben. Beatrice and Benedick are perhaps Shakespeare's most famously witty characters, neither ever lets the other say something without countering it with a pun or criticism. One notable characteristic of their attacks upon each other is their ability to extend a metaphor throughout lines of dialogue. When Benedick calls Beatrice a ‘rare parrot-teacher,' Beatrice responds, ‘a bird of my tongue is better than a beast of yours'. Benedick continues the reference to animals in his response saying, ‘I would my horse had the speed of your tongue'. It is as if each anticipates the other's response. It is suggested in Act I Scene I that Beatrice and Benedick have previously been lovers, but Benedick led Beatrice on, perhaps this is where her viciousness towards him stems from. This is suggested in this quotation: ‘Benedick set up his bills here in Messina and challenged Cupid at the flight, and my uncles fool, reading the challenge, subscribed for Cupid,' she describes a battle of love between herself and Benedick which she has lost. At the masked ball later that night Beatrice dances with Benedick, the audience is unsure whether she simply does not recognise him due to his mask, or pretends not to recognise him. Nonetheless, she cleverly insults him, leaving him a nervous wreck as he cannot reveal himself to be Benedick. ‘Why, he is the prince's jester: a very dull fool; only his gift is in devising slanders†¦..and the commendation is not in his wit, but in his villainy.' She is mocking him and saying that his jokes are boring and nobody finds them amusing. I believe that Don Pedro's aim to bring together Beatrice and Benedick is reasonably realistic. There are many times in Act I and Act II Scene I that the thought of the two of them marrying seems almost impossible. For example when Benedick swears he will ‘live a bachelor', and when Beatrice is on her knees every morning and evening thanking God that she does not have a husband. However, Beatrice and Benedick are both very melodramatic and provide most of the comedy in the play, this gives the reader the view that what they swear cannot be taken as seriously as for example Claudio. From the beginning of the play, it is obvious that there is a strong bond between them. It appears that the ‘skirmish of wit' between them is a cover up for what is a strong bond underneath all the exchanging of criticisms. In act I, Beatrice shows that she thinks about Benedick a lot, by asking the messenger if he has returned from war and by talking almost every time he says something. This also shows in the first scene of Act II when she brings him into the conversation at the masked ball out of the blue. In the end, Don Pedro's plan was a success.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Begging in India Essay

Begging in India is a fashion, a compulsion, a profession, a privilege and a recreation. The number of beggars in India is much larger than in other countries. Our heads hang down in shame when we read description of this institution given by foreigners in a hateful manner. To the Westerners, India is a land of the mendicants and snake-charmers. Beggars are found in villages and towns, on roads, crossings and footpaths. But their favorite haunts are bathing Ghats, temples, religious or festival fairs, railway stations, trains and bus-stands. It is a big nuisance to be confronted by street beggars at all odd places. Like the God Almighty they seem to be omnipresent. You are waiting for a bus at the bus-stand or walking down a road with your friend, they appear from nowhere and start an endless volley of entreaties and blessings. They follow you close at your heels and keep pestering you till you give them some coins out of a sense of sheer disgust and helplessness. There are various types of beggars in India. The religious; beggars cluster round pilgrim centres and attract public attention by their wonderful feats. There are crippled and disabled beggars who remain lying on road-sides or at railway or river bridges arousing sympathy of the passers-by, making all kinds of pitiful gesture! ; There are beggars who are quite stout and able-bodied. Begging for them is not a necessity but a profession. They are idlers and rascals who are unwilling to earn their bread by hard work. They often operate in gangs and their leaders hold a bank balance that would be credit to an important business magnate. They are disguised as physically disabled or handicapped. They use as tools young women with new born babies or young children. Whenever they find an opportunity, they commit thefts and crimes, including kidnapping of children. At some places we come across modernized beggars dressed in suits. Such beggars lead a luxurious life in places of retirement. There are travelling beggars who are particularly seen in trains. The collect alms for orphanages, cow-shelters and widow-shelters, which exist only in their minds. Foreigners are their most privileged victims. Begging in India has developed into an art and a full-fledged profession. The practice of begging is the result of the poverty of the country and the deep-seated religious sentiments and superstitions of our country men. Unemployment, illiteracy, ignorance and ever-increasing population are other causes of begging. It cannot be denied that the distribution of wealth is not fair and the gulf between the rich and the poor is very wide. The rich and the well to-do accept extreme poverty and begging as a necessary feature of society. Religion seems to teach them that charity is the surest passport to heaven. Beggars, in themselves are problems and they create other social problems by kidnapping women and children; Sometimes, we begin to doubt the integrity of spiritually and morally high persons and ill treat them because pink clothes have become the common dress of beggars in India. Charity, in our country, enjoys religious sanctity. But it is conveniently forgotten that misplaced charity is good neither for the one who shows it nor for one to whom it is shown. It encourages idleness and in activity. It produces parasites and wastes a sizeable amount of human power. Laws should be legislated for abolishing begging and offenders should be severely dealt with. The government should be establish work-houses where able-bodied beggars should be kept and compelled to work. The people, in general, should be made conscious of the fact that beggars are the ‘greatest enemies of the country and there should be country wide agitations against beggars. The crippled and disabled beggars should be maintained by the State, The disabled and diseased beggars and orphaned children and destitute women deserve particular attention from the State. There should be asylums and training centres for such people. Here they should first be treated for their ailments and then trained in different kinds of handicrafts and cottage industries. The success of some of the schools for the blind, the deaf and the dumb shows the true solution of the problem. In place of individual charity, funds and donation should be raised on a large and organized scale for the relief of these unfortunate people. Indeed, beggary if so intricately women into our way of life that, no matter how corrupt and scheming it gets, it shall continue to claim attention. If not from the educated, from the illiterate and the superstitious. Tragedy stares at us round every corner. Begging is one of the worst social evils that denegrade India in the eyes of the world. The earlier it is eradicated, the better it would be in the interest of our nation.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

History and Origins of Thanksgiving Day

History and Origins of Thanksgiving Day Almost every culture in the world has celebrations of thanks for a plentiful harvest. The legend of the American Thanksgiving holiday is said to have been based on a feast of thanksgiving in the early days of the American colonies almost four hundred years ago. The tale as it is told in grade schools is a legend, a mythologized version that downplays some of the bleaker history of how Thanksgiving became an American national holiday. The Legend of the First Thanksgiving In 1620, the legend goes, a boat filled with more than one hundred people sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to settle in the New World. This religious group had begun to question the beliefs of the Church of England and they wanted to separate from it. The Pilgrims settled in what is now the state of Massachusetts. Their first winter in the New World was difficult. They had arrived too late to grow many crops, and without fresh food, half the colony died from disease. The following spring, the Wampanoag Iroquois Indians taught them how to grow corn (maize), a new food for the colonists. They showed them other crops to grow in the unfamiliar soil and how to hunt and fish. In the autumn of 1621, bountiful crops of corn, barley, beans, and pumpkins were harvested. The colonists had much to be thankful for, so a feast was planned. They invited the local Iroquois chief and 90 members of his tribe. The Native Americans brought deer to roast with the turkeys and other wild game offered by the colonists. The colonists learned how to cook cranberries and different kinds of corn and squash dishes from the Indians. In following years, many of the original colonists celebrated the autumn harvest with a feast of thanks. A Harsher Reality However, in fact, the Pilgrims werent the first immigrants to celebrate a day of thanksgiving- that probably belongs to the Popham colony of Maine, who celebrated the day of their arrival in 1607. And the Pilgrims didnt celebrate every year afterward. They did celebrate the arrival of supplies and friends from Europe in 1630; and in 1637 and 1676, the Pilgrims celebrated the defeats of the Wampanoag neighbors. The celebration in 1676 was memorable because, at the end of the feast, the rangers sent to defeat the Wampanoag brought back the head of their leader Metacom, who was known by his adopted English name King Philip, on a pike, where it was kept on display in the colony for 20 years. The holiday continued as a tradition in New England, however, celebrated not with a feast and family, but rather with rowdy drunken men who went door to door begging for treats. Thats how many of the original American holidays were celebrated: Christmas, New Years Eve and Day, Washingtons birthday, the 4th of July. Historians believe that there are two connections between the festival held in Plymouth colony and what we celebrate today. Those are a collective and cleaned-up national memory, which arose in the 18th century after the Revolutionary War established a new nation; and in the mid-19th century when that nation came perilously close to breaking, an editor provided a weary Abraham Lincoln an idea to attempt to unify that nation. A New Nations Celebration By the mid-18th century, the rowdy behavior had become a carnivalesque misrule that was closer to what we think of as Halloween or Mardi Gras today. An established mummers parade made up of cross-dressing men, known as the Fantasticals, began by the 1780s: it was considered a more acceptable behavior than the drunken rowdiness. It could be said that these two institutions are still part of Thanksgiving Day celebrations: rowdy men (Thanksgiving Day football games, established in 1876), and elaborate mummer parades (Macys Parade, established in 1924). After the United States became an independent country, Congress recommended one yearly day of thanksgiving for the whole nation to celebrate. In 1789, George Washington suggested the date November 26 as Thanksgiving Day. Later presidents were not so supportive: for example, Thomas Jefferson thought that for the government to proclaim a quasi-religious holiday was a violation of the separation of church and state. Before Lincoln, only two other presidents proclaimed a Thanksgiving Day: John Adams and James Madison. Inventing Thanksgiving In 1846, Sarah Josepha Hale, the editor of Godeys magazine, published the first of many editorials encouraging the celebration of the Great American Festival. She hoped it would be a unifying holiday that would help avert a civil war. In 1863, in the middle of the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln asked all Americans to set aside the last Thursday in November as a day of thanksgiving. In the midst of a civil war of unequaled magnitude and severity, which has sometimes seemed to foreign states to invite and to provoke their aggression, peace has been preserved... The year that is drawing towards its close has been filled with the blessings of fruitful fields and healthful skies... No human counsel hath devised nor hath any mortal hand worked out these great things. They are the gracious gifts of the Highest God... It has seemed to me fit and proper that these gifts should be solemnly, reverently, and gratefully acknowledged as with one heart and voice by the whole American people; I do, therefore, invite my fellow-citizens in every part of the United States, and also those who are at sea, and those who are sojourning in foreign lands, to set apart and observe the last Thursday of November next as a Day of Thanksgiving and a Prayer to our beneficent Father who dwelleth in the heavens.  (Abraham Lincoln, October 3,1863) Symbols of Thanksgiving The Thanksgiving Day of Hale and Lincoln was a domestic event, a day of family homecoming, a mythical and nostalgic idea of the hospitality, civility and happiness of the American family. The purpose of the festival was no longer a communal celebration, but rather a domestic event, carving out a sense of national identity and welcoming home family members. Homey domestic symbols traditionally served at Thanksgiving festivals include: Turkey, corn (or maize), pumpkins and cranberry sauce are symbols which represent the first Thanksgiving. These symbols are frequently seen on holiday decorations and greeting cards.The use of corn meant the survival of the colonies. Indian corn as a table or door decoration represents the harvest and the fall season.Sweet-sour cranberry sauce, or cranberry jelly, was on  the first Thanksgiving  table and is still served today. The cranberry is a small, sour berry. It grows in bogs, or muddy areas, in Massachusetts and other New England states.The Native Americans used the fruit to treat infections. They used the juice to dye their rugs and blankets. They taught the colonists how to cook the berries with sweetener and water to make a sauce. The Indians called it ibimi which means bitter berry. When the colonists saw it, they named it crane-berry because the  flowers  of the berry bent the stalk over, and it resembled the long-necked bird called a crane.The berries are still g rown in New England. Very few people know, however, that before the berries are put in bags to be sent to the rest of the country, each individual berry must bounce at least four inches high to make sure they are not too ripe! Native Americans and Thanksgiving In 1988, a Thanksgiving ceremony of a different kind took place at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine. More than four thousand people gathered on Thanksgiving night. Among them were Native Americans representing tribes from all over the country and descendants of people whose ancestors had migrated to the New World. The ceremony was a public acknowledgment of the Indians role in the first Thanksgiving 350 years ago. Until recently most schoolchildren believed that the Pilgrims cooked the entire Thanksgiving feast, and offered it to the Indians. In fact, the feast was planned to thank the Indians for teaching them how to cook those foods. Without the Indians, the first settlers would not have survived: and, furthermore, the Pilgrims and the rest of European America have done their level best to eradicate what were our neighbors. We celebrate Thanksgiving along with the rest of America, maybe in different ways and for different reasons. Despite everything thats happened to us since we fed the Pilgrims, we still have our language, our culture, our distinct social system. Even in a nuclear age, we still have a tribal people.  -Wilma Mankiller, Principal chief of the Cherokee nation. Updated by Kris Bales Sources Adamczyk, Amy. On Thanksgiving and Collective Memory: Constructing the American Tradition. Journal of Historical Sociology 15.3 (2002): 343–65. Print.Lincoln, Abraham. A Proclamation by the President of the United States of America. Harper’s Weekly October 17 1863. History Now, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History.Pleck, Elizabeth. The Making of the Domestic Occasion: The History of Thanksgiving in the United States. Journal of Social History 32.4 (1999): 773–89. Print.Siskind, Janet. The Invention of Thanksgiving: A Ritual of American Nationality. Critique of Anthropology 12.2 (1992): 167–91. Print.Smith, Andrew F. The First Thanksgiving. Gastronomica 3.4 (2003): 79–85. Print.

Monday, October 21, 2019

Cameron Crowe essays

Cameron Crowe essays Cameron Crowe is one of Hollywood's premier filmmakers. He began his cinematic career by penning the screenplay for the wildly popular 1982 film Fast Times at Ridgemont High, and he made his directorial debut in 1989 with Say Anything . . . , a sophisticated teen romance. Crowe is perhaps best known, though, for the 1996 film Jerry Maguire, which received an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture, and Almost Famous, which earned the Academy Award in 2001. Crowe was born on July 13, 1957, in Palm Springs, California. His father was a real estate agent and his mother was a teacher, activist, and all-around live wire. He had two older sisters, but one died during childhood. Crowe was a sickly child, suffering from the kidney disease nephritis, but he was also very bright. He skipped kindergarten and two primary grades. For this reason, Crowe never really felt comfortable with his school peers throughout his adolescence. Crowe did enjoy writing for the school newspaper. By the time he was thirteen, he was also writing for the San Diego Door, an underground newspaper, and he soon began submitting articles to the popular-music magazines Creem and Circus. Crowe graduated in 1972 at age fifteen, and on a trip to Los Angeles met Ben Fong-Torres, the editor of Rolling Stone, who hired him to write for the magazine. During his seven years with Rolling Stone, Crowe profiled such artists as the Allman Brothers Band, the Eagles, Peter Frampton, King Crimson, and Led Zeppelin. At age nineteen and still boyish, Crowe came up with the idea to pose undercover as a high school student and write about his experiences. At the school he made friends and began to fit in. Crowe described his assignment as "the senior year I never had." Fast Times at Ridgemont High: A True Story is the book that resulted from Crowe's year in high school. It focused on six main characters and chronicles their activities in typical teenage settings such as school, the ...

Sunday, October 20, 2019

Spinner Shark Facts (Carcharhinus brevipinna)

Spinner Shark Facts (Carcharhinus brevipinna) The spinner shark (Carcharhinus brevipinna) is a type of requiem shark. It is a live-bearing, migratory shark found in warm ocean waters. Spinner sharks get their name from their interesting feeding strategy, which involves spinning through a school of fish, snapping them up, and often leaping into the air. Fast Facts: Spinner Shark Scientific Name: Carcharhinus brevipinnaDistinguishing Features: Slender shark with long snout, black-tipped fins, and habit of spinning through water when feeding.Average Size: 2 m (6.6 ft) length; 56 kg (123 lb) weightDiet: CarnivorousLife Span: 15 to 20 yearsHabitat: Coastal waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian OceansConservation Status: Near ThreatenedKingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClass: ChondrichthyesOrder: CarcharhiniformesFamily: CarcharhinidaeFun Fact: Spinner sharks dont eat humans, but will bite if they are excited by other food. Description The spinner shark has a long and pointed snout, slender body, and relatively small first dorsal fin. Adults have black-tipped fins that look as though they were dipped in ink. The upper body is gray or bronze, while the lower body is white. On average, adults are 2 m (6.6 ft) long and weigh 56 kg (123 lb). The largest recorded specimen was 3 m (9.8 ft) long and weighed 90 kg (200 lb). Spinner shark. Spinner sharks and blacktip sharks are commonly confused with each other. The spinner has a slightly more triangular dorsal fin that is further back on the body. An adult spinner shark also has a distinctive black tip on its anal fin. However, juveniles lack this marking and the two species share similar behaviors, so its difficult to tell them apart. Distribution Due to difficulty distinguishing between blacktip and spinner sharks, the spinners distribution is uncertain. It can be found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, with the exception of the eastern Pacific. The species prefers warm coastal water that is less than 30 m (98 ft) deep, but some subpopulations migrate into deeper water. Spinner shark distribution. Chris_huh Diet and Predators Bony fishes are the staple of the spinner sharks diet. The sharks also eat octopus, squid, cuttlefish, and stingrays. The sharks teeth are made for grabbing prey rather than cutting it. A group of spinner sharks chases a school of fish then charges it from below. A spinning shark snaps up fish whole, often carrying enough momentum to leap into the air. Blacktip sharks also employ this hunting technique, although it is less common. Humans are the spinner sharks primary predator, but spinner sharks are also eaten by larger sharks. Reproduction and Life Cycle Spinner sharks and other requiem sharks are viviparous. Mating occurs from spring to summer. The female has two uteri, which are divided into compartments for each embryo. Initially, each embryo lives off its yolk sac. The yolk sac forms a placental connection with the female, which then provides nutrients until the pups are born. Gestation lasts from 11 to 15 months. Mature females give birth to 3 to 20 pups every other year. Spinner sharks start reproducing between the ages of 12 and 14 and can live until they are 15 to 20 years old. Spinner Sharks and Humans Spinner sharks dont eat large mammals, so bites from this species are uncommon and not fatal. The fish will bite if provoked or excited during a feeding frenzy. As of 2008, a total of 16 unprovoked bites and one provoked attack were attributed to spinner sharks. The shark is valued in sport fishing for the challenge it presents as it leaps from the water. Commercial fishermen sell the fresh or salted meat for food, the fins for shark fin soup, the skin for leather, and the liver for its vitamin-rich oil. Conservation Status The IUCN classifies the spinner shark as near threatened worldwide and vulnerable along the southeastern United States. The number of sharks and the population trend is unknown, mainly because spinner sharks are so often confused with other requiem sharks. Because spinner sharks live along highly populated coasts, they are subject to pollution, habitat encroachment, and habit degradation. However, overfishing poses the most significant threat. The US National Marine Fisheries Service 1999 Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Tunas, Swordfish, and Sharks sets bag limits for recreational fishing and quotas for commercial fishing. While sharks of the species grow quickly, the age at which they breed approximates their maximum lifespan. Sources Burgess, G.H. 2009. Carcharhinus brevipinna. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2009: e.T39368A10182758. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T39368A10182758.enCapape, C.; Hemida, F.; Seck, A.A.; Diatta, Y.; Guelorget, O. Zaouali, J. (2003). Distribution and reproductive biology of the spinner shark, Carcharhinus brevipinna (Muller and Henle, 1841) (Chondrichthyes: Carcharhinidae). Israel Journal of Zoology. 49 (4): 269–286. doi:10.1560/DHHM-A68M-VKQH-CY9FCompagno, L.J.V. (1984). Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization. pp. 466–468. ISBN 92-5-101384-5.Dosay-Akbulut, M. (2008). The phylogenetic relationship within the genus Carcharhinus. Comptes Rendus Biologies. 331 (7): 500–509. doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2008.04.001Fowler, S.L.; Cavanagh, R.D.; Camhi, M.; Burgess, G.H.; Cailliet, G.M.; Fordham, S.V.; Simpfendorfer, C.A. Musick, J.A. (2005). Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Sta tus of the Chondrichthyan Fishes. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. pp. 106–109, 287–288. ISBN 2-8317-0700-5.

Saturday, October 19, 2019

FIXED-PRICING CONTRACTING Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

FIXED-PRICING CONTRACTING - Essay Example labor and materials. Therefore, by using these indices the profitability and going concern of small businesses is shield from fluctuating economic conditions. Thus, when there are serious doubts about the economic environment’s stability for prices of labor and materials used by small contracting firms during the period of performance of contract, it is eminent all pre-defined contingencies subject to fluctuations are measured and determined (Stanberry, 2012). Therefore, the fixed-price contracts EPA are the most appropriate type of contacts for small businesses not enjoying any economies of scale and having the desire to grow and expand in a hostile environment where rivalry between firms for the limited market share is intense. Thus, small business owners can take advantage of favorable economic conditions to make supernormal profits when price adjusts upward by negotiating high terms for the ceiling of contract price and negotiating low base level prices during adverse economic

Family and Community Influences Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Family and Community Influences - Essay Example Family and Community Influences Students usually adopt the culture of the learning environment. The actions of the community are therefore influential in regard to performance in schools. There is need for community participation in promoting education, which the government advocates, as well as the cooperation of parents in helping the students to achieve in school. When students are exposed to a hostile environment at home or within the community their performance declines. Lack of parental support may also lead to stress and poor performance. The community needs to serve as a good example to students, which generates enthusiasm for them to learn to accomplish what successful people have accomplished in the community. A community without a culture of promoting education may not accomplish the development needs in the contemporary society, which needs continuous learning and technological advancement to remain competitive and self sufficient. Schools are meant to help the children to develop both intellectually and socially. These are the basis for a competent society in regard to solving problems affecting it as well as maintaining self sufficiency. This essay is a critique of how family and community conditions enhance or hinder the ability of schools to produce socially and academically competent students in Bahamian schools. It focuses on th e concept of environmental impact. Attending classes continuously for more than 10 years with short breaks is usually a long process that requires endurance and determination. In the initial stages when children begin attending school, they usually do not understand the meaning of education.

Friday, October 18, 2019

Consultancy Project for Novartis Saudi Arabia Dissertation

Consultancy Project for Novartis Saudi Arabia - Dissertation Example Related Literature 11 Saudization and the Private Sector 12 Saudization and Novartis Pharma Services 13 Saudi Work Values & Unemployment in the Private Sector 14 Addressing the Challenges of Saudization in Private Companies 16 Pharmacy Education & Practice in Saudi Arabia 17 Pharmacists Working as Medical Representatives 19 Medical Representatives at Novartis Pharma Services 21 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Saudi Arabia 23 HRM and Saudization 24 HRM Strategies on Recruiting Employees 25 Recruitment Strategies of Companies in Saudi Arabia 29 Al-Jomaih Bottling Plants 30 General Electric (GE) Energy Manufacturing Technology Center 30 The Saudi British Bank (SABB) 32 Chapter 3 – Project Proposal 33 Client Background and Issue 33 Project Types 34 Project Outline 34 Methodology and Timeframe 36 Risks 37 Key Contacts 37 Chapter 4 – Analysis & Evaluation of Issues 38 Research Design and Method 38 Pilot Survey 39 Limitations of the study 40 Participants in the study 41 Gro up 1: Saudi Pharmacists in the Government Sector 41 Group 2: Saudi Pharmacists in the Private Sector 43 Group 3: Saudi Pharmacy Students 43 Survey Results and Discussion 43 Research Findings: Saudi Pharmacists in the Government Sector 43 Research Findings: Saudi Pharmacists in the Private Sector 50 Research Findings: Saudi Pharmacy Students 56 Chapter 5 – Findings and Conclusion 61 â€Å"Medical Representatives are Being Paid Less† 61 â€Å"Government Work is a Good Training Ground for Pharmacits† 62 â€Å"Medical Representative Work is a Tough and Stressful Job 62 â€Å"Medical Representative is a Low Status Work† 63 â€Å"The Job is Easier in the Government† 64 Positive Response from the Stakeholders in the Survey 64 Saudi Pharmacists in the Government Sector 64 Saudi Pharmacists in the Private Sector...For this consultancy project, the company’s product manager, Dr. Adel Alohali outlined the challenges that were faced by the company in t he midst of Saudization program by the government. In response to its need to attract more Saudi pharmacists, Novartis provides its medical representatives with generous salaries, bonuses, and other incentives that are comparable to the benefits given for government jobs where most of Saudi pharmacists work. For instance, the company provides new cars, which medical representatives can own after four years and also get a new one after that. However, as Dr. Alohali explained, the company’s Human Resource team is still finding out ways to effectively recruit Saudi pharmacists to work in the company. Currently, Novartis Pharma Services employ a total of 89 pharmacists; 86 of them from foreign countries and only 3 are Saudi nationals. If possible, the company plans to eventually replace its workforce with more Saudi pharmacists in the next few years to drive in more sales for the company. Moreover, some benefits of Saudization of medical representative jobs at Novartis were also discussed during the consultation. The company saw the need to employ Saudi nationals because, as part of their experience and culture, purchasing department in government hospitals and Saudi doctors prefer to deal with Saudi pharmacists than foreign workers. Novartis believes that by employing Saudi pharmacists, they will be able to increase their competitive advantage against other pharmaceutical firms.

HMLS 310 Week 6 conference Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

HMLS 310 Week 6 conference - Coursework Example It is evidential that the development of new technologies that have emerged during the mid-1990s has led to the establishment of internet based application referred to as the social media. This include blogs, discussions forums, you tube channels, Facebook and twitter. Most importantly, social media has played an increasing role in emergencies and disasters. This report summarizes how social media has been used by emergency management officials and agencies. It also evaluates the potential benefits and consequences of using social media in the context of emergency and disasters. Generally in the anthrax attacks, social media would have been used as a medium for conducting emergency communications and issue warnings, receive victim’s requests for assistance, monitoring user’s activities and postings to determine situational awareness and using downloaded images to create damage estimates among others(1). For instance in the attacks, social media would have been used to pass notifications by the use of Community Emergency Response Team (CERT), emergency warnings and alerts to citizens. Besides, social media would have been used to alert emergency officials on the anthrax attacks by monitoring the flow of information from different sources to help in the reduction of the number of casualties. Risk communication refers to the interactive process of exchanging information and opinion among individuals, groups, and institutions involving multiple messages about the nature of risk. It is a science based programme for communicating accurately and effectively in cases of extreme stress and concerns. Moreover, risk communication skills are imperative for the successful management of crises. One way to achieve effective risk communication especially in the case of anthrax attack is through message mapping. This refers to the tool of risk communicator that

Thursday, October 17, 2019

Computer Forensics in Biology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Computer Forensics in Biology - Research Paper Example Application A structured investigation is carried out to sort out what exactly happened to the computer, when it happened, how it happened, and who did it. This is exactly like solving a murder case and performing postmortem. The operator does not know that the evident information is transparently being created and stored by the computer’s operating system, which can only be extracted through computer forensics software tools and techniques. The crimes include misuse of computer systems, attack on computer systems, using a computer system to work against another system, failure of a computer system, and the like. Though, internet identity theft has made people uncertain about shopping and selling online, checking their bank statements online, visiting auction websites, or entering into business contracts or transactions; however, computer forensics has played its part in helping law enforcement agencies in gathering digital evidence and identifying stolen identities as well as the criminals involved. Computer forensics security solutions focus not only on recovery but also on prevention of security threats in order to provide security solutions that are quicker and cheaper than the conventional techniques. These solutions include intrusion detection system (IDS), internet security system, biometric security system, net privacy system, firewall set-ups, network disaster security system, identity theft prevention system, identity management security system, and so on (Vacca 146). Basic Scientific Principles Involved It is important for computer forensic investigators to follow a structured approach to solving computer and internet-based identity theft cases. Computer crime involving ID theft can be grouped as physical security breaches, personnel security breaches, communications and data security breaches, and operations security breaches. A detailed investigation of the case requires that every security breach is analyzed independently to get a more syst ematic approach towards case solving. The digital examination of ID theft cases requires great expertise at the investigator’s end. The evidence or data that is collected is the valuable asset and has to be dealt with sensitivity, as it will help in deciding the specifications of the crime. Digital data is so delicate that it can be altered with one mistaken tap on the keyboard or one inadvertent press of a key. The forensic investigator will have to use some offline techniques in addition to online techniques. Although offline techniques are not the responsibility of a forensic investigator, but of course, he can use them to help himself toward finding the evidential data. He will have to look for any counterfeit documents, fake checks and bogus bank statements in black and white, in addition to looking for digital evidence residing inside the fraudster’s computer system.  

Perceptions about Art Education from the Curators End Assignment

Perceptions about Art Education from the Curators End - Assignment Example The author of the paper states that for the curator to deal with his on the job and the off the job functions, it is necessary that the curator is educated and up to date with various forms and kinds of art. In order to further the education and research of curators, it is the duty of the curator and the employing institution to allow for research and personal growth. Additionally, the curator should be allowed to interact with art experts and curators through the course of regularly scheduled meetings, conferences and through specialist interactions. Another important tool in the curator’s educational arsenal is various forms of catalogs. These publications and others like them are required to educate both the aspiring curator and the expert curator alike. As new developments take place in the world of art, it is important that the curator is updated effectively through a properly standardized channel of communication such as catalogs and information plaques. Another interest ing aspect to note is that the curator from a few decades ago was required to be well informed about works of art alone. However, the modern curator is required to have knowledge of people and their interests so that exhibitions may be successful. It has been suggested that the modern curator should perform small exhibitions in order to gauge the interest of the public so that larger exhibitions are more successful. Certain scholars have argued that the roles of the modern curator have assumed new dimensions due to the growth of new tools of engagement with wider audiences. The modern curator has been interpreted as being a marketer, an interpreter, a program producer, a conservator, and other such allied roles. The modern curator has to be more involved with people and presentation compared to the traditional curator given the massive changes in how communication is managed. It is relevant to note that the uptight and self ostracised curator of the past has given way to a more inte ractive and friendly curator in the present era. Currently, the role and use of art education in curatorial practice are available but its participation needs to be increased given the kinds of new roles and responsibilities that the modern curator in the museum will have to face. The current frameworks for educating curators through museums are limited in their scope and the means that are being utilized. It is common to notice conventional means such as catalogs, information plaques, physical conferences and the like organized by museums. The need of the hour is to expand the current conventional museum curator education frameworks to incorporate digital means and channels of education. The education of the modern curator is not about becoming aware of art or of developing awareness about other myriad people interaction roles. Instead, the modern curator has to be taught to assume an independent learning framework that allows the modern curator to remain afloat in the vast sea of knowledge throughout his entire career. Presently, the curator is provided with a fixed educational frame within the museum environment that consists in large part on conventional means of education as mentioned above. The greater burden of the curator’s education has to be left to the curator himself since the museum can only act as a channel for education.  

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

Computer Forensics in Biology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Computer Forensics in Biology - Research Paper Example Application A structured investigation is carried out to sort out what exactly happened to the computer, when it happened, how it happened, and who did it. This is exactly like solving a murder case and performing postmortem. The operator does not know that the evident information is transparently being created and stored by the computer’s operating system, which can only be extracted through computer forensics software tools and techniques. The crimes include misuse of computer systems, attack on computer systems, using a computer system to work against another system, failure of a computer system, and the like. Though, internet identity theft has made people uncertain about shopping and selling online, checking their bank statements online, visiting auction websites, or entering into business contracts or transactions; however, computer forensics has played its part in helping law enforcement agencies in gathering digital evidence and identifying stolen identities as well as the criminals involved. Computer forensics security solutions focus not only on recovery but also on prevention of security threats in order to provide security solutions that are quicker and cheaper than the conventional techniques. These solutions include intrusion detection system (IDS), internet security system, biometric security system, net privacy system, firewall set-ups, network disaster security system, identity theft prevention system, identity management security system, and so on (Vacca 146). Basic Scientific Principles Involved It is important for computer forensic investigators to follow a structured approach to solving computer and internet-based identity theft cases. Computer crime involving ID theft can be grouped as physical security breaches, personnel security breaches, communications and data security breaches, and operations security breaches. A detailed investigation of the case requires that every security breach is analyzed independently to get a more syst ematic approach towards case solving. The digital examination of ID theft cases requires great expertise at the investigator’s end. The evidence or data that is collected is the valuable asset and has to be dealt with sensitivity, as it will help in deciding the specifications of the crime. Digital data is so delicate that it can be altered with one mistaken tap on the keyboard or one inadvertent press of a key. The forensic investigator will have to use some offline techniques in addition to online techniques. Although offline techniques are not the responsibility of a forensic investigator, but of course, he can use them to help himself toward finding the evidential data. He will have to look for any counterfeit documents, fake checks and bogus bank statements in black and white, in addition to looking for digital evidence residing inside the fraudster’s computer system.  

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

Gymnastics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Gymnastics - Essay Example Learning, however, is a complex process, the principles of which are not always obvious, thus the need for careful inspection. By examining these principles we will be in a better position to assess how they can be applied to physical education. Psychology is about theories as to what leads people to behave in particular ways in different situations. Learning and motivation are important aspects of human behavior and have been the subject of much research. From the perspective of motor skills, learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in ability resulting from experience and training as a progression from simple to more complex, sophisticated movements Operant conditioning is a psychological technique for modifying behavior that is particularly relevant to how psychology can be helpful to the teaching of gymnastics. The technique is defined as a voluntary response that is strengthened or weakened according to immediately following consequences. Organisms therefore have a tendency to repeat those actions that are reinforced in particular ways that result in a change of behavior. Behaviorism, as this approach to learning is called, is based on those aspects of behavior that are overtly observable. Because behaviorist techniques rely on the observation of explicit actions, they are especially applicable to the teaching of gymnastics. There are various methods by which a behavior can be reinforced of which the most efficacious has proved to be positive (praise) rather than negative (punishment) feedback. Positive reinforcement are of two main kinds, extrinsic and intrinsic; verbal encouragement or privileges are common examples of the former, whereas the latter applies to self-motivated students who receive a sense of fulfilment at achieving success. As students requiring the most attention are those who tend to underachieve and are not always self-motivated, our concern will mainly be with extrinsic reinforces as these, when used in the right circumstances, have proved to be advantageous in a number of different ways. An essential aspect of achieving a positive outcome is the breaking down of complex tasks into simpler ones that can be translated into graded steps according to the ability of the student. In this regard, motor skills can be decomposed into a series of simple frames that help to pin-point strengths and weaknesses that can be translated into structured programmes for initiating improvement. Programmed learning of this type allows the trainee to progress at his/her own rate, and permits learning to be facilitated through positive reinforcement of the targeted behavior in that a correct response will be more likely than an incorrect one. Skills can therefore be programmed to advance through structured hierarchies of tasks that progress from the rudimentary to the complex through successive approximation. In a physical education setting, there are special circumstances to take account of when applying these principles. As individuals are inclined to possess a wide variety of abilities, it is essential that the

Monday, October 14, 2019

Notes on American Literature Essay Example for Free

Notes on American Literature Essay Important figures:  ·Sir Walter Raleigh ? traveler, Elizabeths I lover, poet, soldier, died in Tower of London. A famous English writer, poet, courtier and explorer. He was responsible for establishing the second English colony in the New World (after Newfoundland was established by Sir Humphrey Gilbert nearly one year previously, August 5 1583) on June 4, 1584, at Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina. When the third attempt at settlement failed, the ultimate fate of the colonists was never authoritatively ascertained.  ·John Winthrop ? governor of Massachusetts. led a group of English Puritans to the New World, joined the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 and was elected their first governor on April 8, 1630. Between 1639 and 1648 he was voted out of governorship and re-elected a total of 12 times. Although Winthrop was a respected political figure, he was criticized for his obstinacy (stubborn) regarding the formation of a general assembly in 1634. Calvins influence:  ·theory of predestination, limited redemption  ·self trials to find destiny  ·the only hope was faith in God.  ·Gods goodwill ? irresistible grace  ·faith makes everyone good but good deeds without faith dont work  ·one should follow their destiny, ex. become a farmer, following destiny will make you successful, (wealthy) but you shouldnt dont spend money, invest it!  ·the holy act of making money for God Puritans were waiting for signs, they read ? books to read (the Bible), interpreted it, interpreted history in their own, Puritan way. Anything could be a sign (weather conditions, Indian attacks, diseases, famine, etc. ). Puritan faith:  ·grim, no paintings, no music  ·sermons were extremely important as they interpreted the Bible Michael Wigglesworth: (1631-1705)  ·wrote The Day of Doom (1662) his poem represents puritan thought of the time. Many of the puritans memorized it and used it to get people back into the church. They used it to teach children and lingering adults. This was the first best seller, even though this term wasnt used yet. It describes the Day of Judgment and the sentencing to punishment in hell of sinners and of infants who died before baptism. Samuel Danforth: (1626-1674)  ·In 1670, he was invited to give the annual election sermon to the General Assembly, which was afterwards printed as A Brief Recognition of New-Englands Errand into the Wilderness (about turning nature into civilization) and is regarded as one of the finest examples of the jeremiad form  ·jeremiad sermons explained things form the Bible, created context, it said that future is glorious because we can be better, improve ourselves History interpretations: Cotton Mather: (1663-1728).  ·Magnalia Christi Americana (about religious development of Massachusetts, and other nearby colonies in New England from 1620 to 1698); the English title was The Ecclesiastical History of New England (1702)  ·he also wrote descriptions of the Salem Witch Trials, in which he criticizes some of the methods of the court and attempts to distance himself from the event; account of the escape Hannah Dustan, one of the most famous to captivity narrative scholars; his complete catalogus of all the students that graduated from Harvard College, and story of the founding of Harvard College itself; and his assertions that Puritan slaveholders should do more to convert their slaves to Christianity  ·made a heritage, typological approach 08. 10. 2007 Religious texts: sermons ? instruments of communication between the minister and the people theological thesis chronicles (historical) Mary Rowlandson (1635-7 ? 1678)  ·She was a colonial American woman, who wrote a vivid description of the seven weeks and five days she spent living with Native Americans. Her short book,  ·A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson (1682), is considered a seminal work in the American literary genre of captivity narratives. The first phase of heroic period ? first 30 years, after that a serious problem occurred? experience of conversion, but not everyone did it so what to do with their children? 1662 ? Halfway Covenant (by Senate in Boston) ? salvation is heredity even if they didnt experienced it. 17th century was more flexible what led to great religious revival in the US, literary phenomenon, outburst of religious emotions ?  thus texts. George Whitefield ? a rhetorician, preacher, appealed to American people, triggered religious revival. The Great Awakening: (1735 ? 1750)  ·paradoxical movement, they considered themselves as only true Puritans but they were considered almost heretical movement, their enthusiasm had negative connotations, people thought they should be more rational  ·leaders: Jonathan Edwards who wrote a fire-and-brimstone sermon entitled Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (1741), he believed in Protestant dogma, he wanted people to experience real conversion, was against formal  sermons, he had a hypnotic way of teaching, appealing to emotions, he was forced to move and live in wilderness, died of smallpox. He was an active philosopher, tried to combine old religion with Lockes new approach to religion.  ·the movement (the Great Awakening) was the last significant moment to regain control by Puritans Edwards vs. Franklin ? they lived in the same time, enlightenment competing with the old heritage Franklin was born in Boston and he wanted to move to Philadelphia ? city of enlightenment, Quakers, city owned by William Penn. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)  ·Autobiography (written in 1771 1790) -Learning model behavior, proposed model human being, he would respond to the beauty of the world, and nature as a living presence of God, story of narrators progress from Boston to Philadelphia, devoted himself to common good, he made success count most (financial in your own eyes and prestige in others eyes) -12 commandments, its good to imitate Jesus and Socrates (although Socrates was a pagan and a suicider)  ·Poor Richards Almanac -was a yearly almanack published by Benjamin Franklin, who adopted the pseudonym of Poor Richard or Richard Saunders for this purpose. The publication appeared continuously from 1732 to 1758. It was a best seller for a pamphlet published in the American colonies; print runs reached 10,000 per year. Franklin, the American inventor, statesman, and publisher, achieved success with Poor Richards Almanack. Almanacks were very popular books in colonial America, with people in the colonies using them for the mixture of seasonal weather forecasts, practical household hints, puzzles, and other amusements they offered. Poor Richards Almanack was popular for all of these reasons, and also for its extensive use of wordplay, with many examples derived from the work surviving in the contemporary American vernacular. Addressed to farmers (almanacs), useful information about farming, weather, astronomy, moral advice, many proverbs, (for example God helps those who help themselves what is opposite to Puritan philosophy), Do good papers, colonies literature. Franklin developed practical procedure of self improvement day by day and step by step to be thoroughly rational human being. political literature ? debate between Federalists and anti-Federalists Americans identified with Ancient Rome, thats why the Declaration was born. The creators were educated, they read Greek, Roman works, developed sense of public virtue, conflict with the British Crown. Locke, Milton ? inspired colonies to develop ideology to sewer the ties with the Crown + no taxation without representation Thomas Paine (1737-1809)  ·in 1774 ? came to America as an old man, in 1776 he published Common sense, an anti-British book about Britain illegal financial abuse, appealed to Americans self-confidence, enough to be independent, to shape their destiny by determination, stamina, brains etc. The document denounced British rule and, through its immense popularity, contributed to stimulating the American Revolution. Hartford Wits (also called the Connecticut Wits) A group of American writers centered around Yale University and flourished in the 1780s and 1790s. Mostly graduates of Yale, they were conservative federalists who attacked their political opponents with satirical verse. Members included Joel Barlow, Timothy Dwight IV, David Humphreys, John Trumbull, Lemuel Hopkins, Richard Alsop, and Theodore Dwight. Works produced by the group include: The Anarchiad (published in the New Haven Gazette from 1786? 1787) The Political Greenhouse (Connecticut Courant, 1799) The Echo (American Mercury, 1791? 1805) John Trumbull (1756-1843)  ·believed in poetics, aesthetics, heroic couplet, satire. Member of a group of artists who painted important American historical events, Trumbull had an insiders view of the War, serving as a colonel in the Continental Army and aide to Gen. Washington in the American Revolution  ·The Progress of Dullness (1772-1773) n attack in three poems on educational methods of his time (three parts: 1. adventures of Tom Brainless, sent to college, he learns the art of preaching,; 2. Dick Hairbrain, a town fop, the son of a wealthy farmer, ridiculous in dress, empty of knowledge, but profound in swearing and cheap infidelity; 3. Miss Harriet Simper, slender female education, formerly in vogue, and the life of the coquette) Timothy Dwight (1752-1817)  ·continued Wigglesworth tradition  ·The Conquest of Canaan (pub. 1785) ? ambitious epic in eleven books, about George Washington war of independence  ·Greenfield Hill (1794) descriptive poem about small New England town, turned by Dwight into ideal place to live, with common wellbeing, where people take care of education, etc. Its also a historical poem, about Peacock (Indian tribe) war and massacre of Indians  ·Travels in New England and New York (1820-1822) huge publication, sort of a tourist guide, covers areas of Southern New England. He loved the place and wanted to commemorate it. Joel Barlow (1754-1812)  ·graduate of Yale, he died in Zarnowiec in Poland of pneumonia while he was on his journey to the Emperor in France  ·Poem, Spoken at the Public Commencement at Yale College (1781) ? becoming American diplomat Barlow witnessed French return to France after the war;  ·The Vision of Columbus (1787)? poem about future glory of America, Columbus visited by an Angel in prison (like in Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius where the author is visited by incarnation of philosophy; parallel of Columbus)  ·1807 ? Barlow changed his religious, political option, became enthusiast of the French Revolution;  ·1st American poem ? Barlows first attempt Phillis Wheatley (1753-1784)  ·black slave woman from Senegambia, purchased by Boston Whitley (sort of philanthropist). She managed to learn English, extremely gifted girl, learnt to read (Milton, Homer), write. She was allowed to study, learn Latin. She started to write good poetry, praised by George Washington, but Jefferson didnt like her poetry ? point of controversy. She expressed sort of gratitude, makes references to Greek poetry, ancient Rome, neo-classical poetry, giving a testimony that she decided to adopt, make her way to elite, in England she was a well known poet. She died young. 15. 10. 2007 Michel Guillaume (also known as Hector Saint John de Crevecoeur) (1735? 1813)  ·French-American writer, fought on the French side in the French and Indian War, then moved to New York State, becoming a naturalized citizen. After travels through various colonies, he settled on a farm in Orange Co, New York.  ·wrote a number of essays and books which portrayed life in the New World  ·Letters from an American Farmer (1784) where he describes conditions on the frontier, says that in America men are free, its a beautiful, natural country of liberty. Sketches of the 18th century America ? slaves, animals, community, style of slavery practice in the South, American farmers are not happy because of the lies of Independence. Early American novels had to compete with a large amount of English novels. They were also fiction and lies. SENTIMENTAL NOVELS William Hill Brown (1765-1793)  ·The Power of Sympathy (1789) ? first American novel written by first American novelist. Controversial for its time, displays the themes of seduction, betrayal, and incest. Its a moral novel written in letters. Its against immoral behavior, sort of educational guide against seduction. Plot: written in correspondence: several letters between friends and lovers. two young people fall in love, but in fact theyre brother and sister. They woman kills herself because she had fallen in love with her own brother and then the man devastated commits suicide. Susanna Haswell Rowson (1762-1824)  ·Charlotte Temple (1791) first American bestseller ? seduced young lady gives a birth to a child, Lucy, then dies. Successful novel but Susanna didnt make money for it as the novel was published illegally. It is characterized by emphatic moralism and melodramatic language, the idea that women should take care of each other. Written to protect young women from the pain of social rejection, includes theme of seduction and betrayal. Samuel Richardson (1689-1761)  ·Clarissa, or, the History of a Young Lady (1748) epistolary novel, tells the tragic story of a heroine whose quest for virtue is continually thwarted by her family. It is commonly cited as the longest novel in the English language. Clarissa is a beautiful and virtuous young lady whose family has become very wealthy only in recent years and is now eager to become part of the aristocracy. Her relatives attempt to force her to marry a rich but heartless man against her will and, more importantly, against her own sense of virtue. Desperate to remain free, she is tricked by a young gentleman of her acquaintance, Lovelace, into escaping with him. However, she refuses to marry him, longing ? unusual for a girl in her time ? to live by herself in peace. Lovelace, in the meantime, has been trying to arrange a fake marriage all along, and considers it a sport to add Clarissa to his long list of conquests. However, as he is more and more impressed by Clarissa, he finds it difficult to keep convincing himself that truly virtuous women do not exist. The continuous pressure he finds himself under, combined with his growing passion for Clarissa, drives him to extremes and eventually he rapes her. Clarissa manages to escape from him, but becomes dangerously ill. When she dies, however, it is in the full consciousness of her own virtue, and  trusting in a better life after death. Lovelace, tormented by what he has done but still unable to change, dies in a duel with Clarissas cousin. Clarissas relatives finally realise the misery they have caused, but discover that they are too late and Clarissa has already died.  ·Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) is an epistolary novel. It tells the story of a maid named Pamela whose master, Mr. B. , makes unwanted advances towards her. She rejects him continually, and her virtue is eventually rewarded when he shows his sincerity by proposing an equitable marriage to her. In the second part of the novel, Pamela attempts to accommodate herself to upper-class society and to build a successful relationship with him. The story was widely mocked at the time for its perceived licentiousness and it inspired Henry Fielding (among many others) to write two parodies: Shamela (1741), about Pamelas true identity; and Joseph Andrews (1742), about Pamelas brother. Hannah Webster Foster (1758-1840)  ·The Coquett,; or, The History of Eliza Wharton (1797) is an epistolary novel. Published anonymously until 1866, 26 years after Websters death. It was one of the best-selling novels of its time. The novel is a fictionalized account of the story of Elizabeth Wharton, the daughter of a clergyman who died after giving birth to a stillborn, illegitimate child at a roadside tavern. Writers and preachers of the day blamed her demise on the fact that she read romance novels, which gave her improper ideas and turned her into a coquette. Foster responded with The Coquette, which provided a more sympathetic portrayal of Wharton and described the difficulties faced by middle-class women. Tabitha Tenney (1762-1837)  ·Female Quixotism (1801) ? the heroine goes mad, she has a strange idea of love (all men are the heroes of romances). She had some candidates but she doesnt like them. The book is rather a parody. The woman cant get married, she makes wrong choices, rejects good man and accepts the dishonest ones. HORROR STORIES ? THE GOTHIC NOVEL Ann Radcliffe (1764 1823)  ·pioneer of the gothic novel. English writer.  ·The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) follows the fortunes of Emily St. Aubert who suffers, among other misadventures, the death of her father, supernatural terrors in a gloomy castle, and the machinations of an Italian brigand. Often cited as the archetypal Gothic novel, Charles B. Brown (1771 1810).  ·he wanted to be professional writer but people didnt want to read him. He quitted and became a political writer. He was the first American gothic writer.  ·Wieland, or, the Transformation (1798) ? Theodore Wieland is master of a landed estate, which he has inherited from his father, an immigrant from Germany. Wieland Senior was a man of strange inclinations who, having built a temple on a hillock in the grounds, devoted to his own idiosyncratic religion, later dies mysteriously of spontaneous combustion (samospalenie). Wieland inherits his fathers god-fearing disposition. However the rural idyll he shares with his wife, children, sister and best friend is shattered when he becomes prey to the trickery of Carwin: a mysterious ventriloquist (brzuchomowca) who has moved to the area after leading an undercover life of deception in Europe. Under the influence of religious mania and Carwins trickery Wieland kills his wife and children as a demonstration of his obedience to a divine voice. In court he expresses no remorse for his deeds and later escapes from prison to attempt the life of his sister, before being stopped in his tracks by the command of a final divine voice, which in reality emanates from Carwin. Wieland then commits suicide. The story is told as a first person narrative by Wielands sister Clara. As the story proceeds her initial calm and rational disposition is sorely tried by the uncanny and bloody events of the story, which reduces her, by the end, to a state of near mania. Her relations with the deceiver Carwin are ambiguous, veering between attraction and repulsion as the story unfolds. Apparently the novel was based on the true story of a multiple murder which took place at Tomhannock, New York in 1781.  ·Ormond; or, the Secret Witness (1799) ?  about lady who kills her seducer with a penknife. The novel engages with many of the periods popular debates about womens education, marriage, and the morality of violence, while the plot revolves around the Gothic themes of seduction, murder, incest, impersonation, romance and disease. Set in post-revolutionary Philadelphia, Ormond examines the prospects of the struggling nation by tracing the experiences of Constantia, a young virtuous republican who struggles to survive when her fathers business is ruined by a confidence man, and her friends and neighbors are killed by a yellow fever epidemic.  ·Arthur Mervyn (1799) Arthur Mervyn suffers form yellow fever, discovered by Dr. Stevens who invites him home. Mr. Wortley comes over to Dr. Stevens, recognizes Arthur Mervyn, and reacts with extreme displeasure. Dr. Stevens demands an explanation. Mervyn begins to tell his story. This is the frame, nearly three quarters of the book bring Mervyns adventures up to this moment in time.  ·Edgar Huntly; or, Memoirs of a Sleep-Walker (1799) The story of a young man who sleepwalks each night and is a threat to himself and others, unable to control his baser passions. Set outside Philadelphia in 1787, the book is a metaphor for the founding of a new nation, but can be read on a literal level as an American Gothic novel. Placed in the middle of wilderness. Young man wakes up in a dark hotel room, he doesnt know how he got there, he has a tomahawk. Kills a panther and eats it raw. Eventually returns home. Isaac Mitchell (1835-1893)  ·Alonzo and Melissa (1804) ? gothic castle on Long Island. Explanation that the castle was built by Puritans. ADVENTURE NOVELS Royall Tyler (1757-1826)  ·The Algerine Captive (1797) about a Harvard-educated American schoolteacher turned doctor, who was captured by Barbary (the Algerians) pirates in 1788 and sold into slavery in the City of Algiers. Description of conditions in which black slaves were kept on ships. At the end the character returns to USA.  ·The Contrast (1790) is an American play in the tradition of the English Restoration comedies of the seventeenth century; it takes its cue from Sheridans The School for Scandal, a British comedy of manners that had revived that tradition a decade before. Royall uses the form to satirize Americans who follow British fashions and indulge in British vices. Hugh Henry Brackenridge (1748-1816)  ·Modern Chivalry: Containing the Adventures of Captain John Farrago and Teague ORegan, His servant (1792) is a rambling, satirical American novel. The book is arguably the first important work of fiction about the American frontier and called to the West what Don Quixote was to Europe. a more thoroughly American book than any written before 1833. The model of modern chivalry was Don Quixote they travel all over US. Cultural change was in Boston or around Boston in 18th century. New cultural force ? Unitarianism. Dutch Bishop, rejected the dogma of the predestination, unificated the Great Trinity to one God Father. Unitarians believed that people can improve themselves without grace of God. New, much more optimistic model of human being began. Sermons ? people should show likeness to God by practicing virtues, trying to be good. Henry Ware educated at Harvard College, Professor at Harvard, precipitating a controversy between Unitarians and more conservative Calvinists. He took part in the formation of the Harvard Divinity School and the establishment of Unitarianism there in the following decades, publishing his debates with eminent Calvinists in the 1820s. William Emerson In 1804, Emerson founded the Anthology Club, a Boston literary society, and wrote articles for the clubs The Monthly Anthology. This publication was the forerunner of the North American Review, Americas leading literary journal, and the Clubs reading room led to the founding in 1807 of the Boston Athenaeum. Joseph Stevens Buckminster Upon his graduation, he became minister of the Brattle Street Church in Boston, and quickly launched an almost legendary career of eloquent preaching, biblical scholarship, and literary production which set the tone for the pattern of the minister as a man of letters. In 1801 he traveled to Europe and returned with books. He was the most brilliant member of the Anthology Club, an early editor of the Monthly Anthology, and in 1811 was appointed Dexter Lecturer at Harvard where he occupied the first Chair in Scripture. Buckminsters influence on his contemporaries was striking. His mastery of the emerging New Criticism from German Biblical scholars led to his rational investigation of the Bible, subjecting its text to the same scrupulous scholarly investigation given other texts from antiquity. Founded in Boston in 1815, The North American Review (NAR) was the first literary magazine in the United States, and was published continually until 1940, when publication was suspended due to World War II. The Reviews first editor, William Tudor (1779-1830), and other founders had been members of Bostons Anthology Club, and launched The North American Review to foster a genuine American culture. In its first few years it was published poetry, fiction, and miscellaneous essays on a bi-monthly schedule, but in 1818 it became a quarterly with more focused contents intent on improving society and on elevating culture. The Review promoted the improvement of public education and administration, with reforms in secondary schools, sound professional training of doctors and lawyers, rehabilitation of prisoners at the state penitentiary, and government by educated experts. Its editors and contributors included such literary and political New Englanders as John Adams, George Bancroft, Nathaniel Bowditch, William Cullen Bryant, Lewis Cass, Edward T. Channing, Caleb Cushing, Richard Henry Dana, Alexander Hill Everett, Edward Everett, Jared Sparks, George Ticknor, Gulian C. Verplanck, Daniel Webster. 22. 10. 2007 Norton Anthology ? early times, complaining about American literature, being poor, inferior to British, what should be done to improve Madame de Stael (1766-1817)  ·quickly translated into English, pub. in New York; as a French-speaking Swiss author living in Paris and abroad. She influenced literary tastes in Europe at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries Walter Cherning ? in North American review, tried to apply Madames ideas to American context The Analectic ? literary magazine There was no a really popular, one author in American unknown for Europe (in literature) until Irving. Washington Irving (1783 1859)  ·One of the first noted American authors to be highly acclaimed in Europe during his life time, Irving was a prolific author of fiction and non-fiction. He wrote numerous short stories, biographies, histories, and tales of his travels. His characters Ichabod Crane and Rip van Winkle are now icons of popular American culture, and many of Irvings works have inspired adaptations to the stage and film.  ·Washington, while born sickly, was a mischievous and adventuresome young man, sneaking out at night to attend plays and frustrating his pious parents, especially his father. He roamed the city and environs, dreaming of far-off placesdreams that were partly fueled by one of his favourite books, Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe. Travelling would become a life-long passion. Although he was not an avid student, he studied law and became a clerk.  ·Suffering from ill-health off and on for many years, in 1804 Irving set sail from New York Harbour, the first of many trips abroad: he was going to a spa in Bordeaux, France to treat a lung ailment. He learned French, made many friends, travelled through Europe. In 1806 he returned to America.  ·with his brother William and James Kirke Paulding created a semi-monthly periodical World of New York to compete with the more sombre news publications of the day. While it was short-lived The Salmagundi Paper; or, the Whim-Whams and Opinions of Laucelot Langstaff, Esq. And Others. (1809) was met with great success. The Jonathan Swift-like satire and tongue-in-cheek pokes at politics, culture, and society was to instruct the young, reform the old, correct the town, and castigate the age.  ·The Salmagundi Papers (1809) satirical work by Washington Irving (under the pen name Diedrich Kinckerbocker), with the title being derived from the dish. The work is nowadays remembered especially for first popularizing the sobriquet Gotham for New York City.  ·In a similar vein Irving composed his first novel, Knickerbockers History of New York (1809). A burlesque and comprehensive weaving of fact and fiction, his History of New-York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty is narrated by Diedrich Knickerbocker and won Irving much acclaim at home and abroad.  ·Irvings short stories, first printed in America under his pseudonym Geoffrey Crayon between the years 1819-20 were collected in The Crayon Papers and The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon. They contain two of Irvings most famous tales: Rip van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. These stories were wildly popular in America and soon too in Europe.  ·His next novel was Bracebridge Hall, or, The Humorists, A Medley (1822). Published under the pseudonym Geoffrey Crayon, centers on an English manor, its inhabitants, and the tales they tell. Interspersed with witty, evocative sketches of country life among the English nobility is the well-known tale The Stout Gentleman and stories based on English, French, and Spanish folklore, vividly recounted with Irvings inimitable blend of elegance and colloquial dash. They include Dolph Heyliger the story of a New Yorker who encounters a haunted house, ghosts, and a buried treasure.  ·It was followed by Tales of a Traveller (1824), which Irving considered one of his finer works. A last experiment with fiction before he turned to the writing of history, biography, and adaptation of folktales. Arranged in four sections, the miscellany of short fiction reveals elements of comedy and melodrama new to Irvings work. The first three groups of stories have a European background, while the final five stories, supposedly found among the papers of the late Diedrich Knickerbocker, are set in New York and feature pirates and buried treasure.  ·In 1826 Irving moved to Madrid, Spain, where he set to writing his highly lauded The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828), Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada (1829), and Tales of the Alhambra (1832) rich compendium of tales, deftly interwoven with historical accounts and picturesque sketches, was assembled from Spanish and Moorish folklore, history, guidebooks, and anecdotes of Irvings experiences among the local residents. The forty-nine pieces range from stories based on Granadas colorful history to graceful vignettes of its contemporary scene, from romantic descriptions of the local architecture and terrain to medieval tales of the supernatural.  ·Astoria: Anecdotes of an enterprise beyond the Rocky Mountains (1836). . I have felt anxious to get at the details of their adventurous expeditions among the savage tribes that peopled the depths of the wilderness. It explores Irvings impressions from travels in Canada and America as guest of John Jacob Astors Northwest Fur Company. Irving expresses his sympathy to the displaced, and dispossessed savage Native American Peoples in such stories as Philip of Pokanoket, Traits of Indian Character, and Origin of the White, the Red, and the Black Men. first American Literary Account of the Wild West, surprised that his view is different from Ch. Brownings (who portrayed the Westerners as wild animals). Irving portrays them as human, describes buffalo hunting (exaggerated a bit as he describes himself hunting). Counts as the earliest literary description of the West.  ·The Adventures of Captain Bonneville (1837) Drawing on Bonnevilles own journals, Washington Irving chronicles the exploits and adventures of Captain James Bonneville, one of the earliest explorers of the American West, detailing his various journeys with mountain man Joseph Rutherford Walker; their discovery of Yosemite, Walker Pass, and the Bonneville Salt Flats; and life among the Native Americans and trappers of the West.  ·Irvings last finished work, something he had been working on for many years but kept putting aside for other more pressing projects is his Life of George Washington (1859).  ·The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820) The story is set circa 1790 in the Dutch settlement of Tarry Town, New York, in a secluded glen called Sleepy Hollow. It tells the story of Ichabod Crane, a lanky schoolmaster from Connecticut, who competes with Abraham Brom Bones Van Brunt, the town rowdy, for the hand of 18-year-old Katrina Van Tassel, only daughter of a wealthy farmer. As Crane leaves a party at the Van Tassel home on an autumn night, he is pursued by the Headless Horseman, supposedly the ghost of a Hessian trooper who lost his head to a cannonball during some nameless battle of the American Revolutionary War and who rides forth to the scene of battle in nightly quest of his head. Crane disappears from town, leaving Katrina to marry Brom Bones, who was to look exceedingly knowing whenever the story of Ichabod was related.  ·Rip Van Winkle (1819) The story of Rip Van Winkle is set in the years immediately before (the early to mid-1770s) and after the American Revolutionary War (the early to mid-1790s). Rip Van Winkle, a villager of Dutch descent, lives in a nice village at the foot of New Yorks Catskill Mountains. An amiable man whose home and farm suffer from his lazy neglect, he is loved by all but his wife. One autumn day he escapes his naggi.

Sunday, October 13, 2019

The Great Depression: Causes and Effects

The Great Depression: Causes and Effects It has been observed that the modern world has never experienced an economic crisis as severe as the `Great Depression. The term was first coined in the United States to describe the economic collapse that, by 1931, had shattered the US economy and Americans faith in the future. Europe and the rest of the world were also badly hit, and while they first called the crisis `a slump, in time the label `Great Depression was adopted on both sides of the Atlantic to describe this unprecedented global economic crisis.[1] The ramifications of the 1890’s depression were circumscribed by comparison with the Great Depression. In the 1930’s, national economies were sorely tested and shaken to their foundations. Economic and social statistics unequivocally attest to the chronic condition of national economies in industrialised nations during the period of 1929-1939. McGovern presents the figures, which characterise 1933 in the USA.[2] The most serious failure in terms of its human consequences was, of course, unemployment. According to official figures, this peaked in 1933 at 12.8 million or 25% of the workforce, figures that barely changed in 1934 after one year of the Roosevelt administration when 11.3 million were jobless, still nearly 22% of available workers. 11 Expert advisors to the government calculated even higher numbers for 1933, with monthly unemployment averaging 13.1 million. March 1933 was the nadir for the entire 1930s, with 15 million, nearly 30%, out of work. Since unemployed workers usually had families exclusively dependent on them, between 40 and 50 million Americans were without regular job income during the most severe period of the Depression. Another large number of workers with dependents, (larger even than the number unemployed), were forced to work with reduced income as part-time workers. Furthermore, the period of 1932-1933 is universally described as a dire state for nations and entities such as USA, Europe and Australia, indeed a period popularly referred to as the ‘nadir’ of the depression. Regardless of which barometers of economic strength are consulted, there is a prevailing sense of economic and social malaise, throughout the industrialised world, in these particular years. Powell notes[3] during the 1930s, the Great Depression was widely blamed on stock market speculation, reckless banking practices, and a concentration of wealth in too few hands. The New Deal laws were drafted accordingly. Subsequent investigations, however, have convinced most economists that the Depression had little to do with any of those things. The most influential single work is A Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960, published in 1963 by Milton Friedman and Anna Jacobson Schwartz, which documented the catastrophic one-third contraction of the money supply between 1929 and 1933. Princeton University economist Paul Krugman remarks that, Nowadays, practically the whole spectrum of economists, from Milton Friedman leftward, agrees that the Great Depression was brought on by a collapse of effective demand, and that the Federal Reserve should have fought the slump with large injections of money. Smiley contends that adopting the gold standard was a primary cause for the depression, inducing differential inflation rates among the Allies, which in turn doomed those economies to the self-inflicted injuries of deflation. Fear of inflation at the Fed plus the failure to protect the financial sector did considerable damage. Clavin explains the USA’s role in bringing Europe to the brink, in the early 1930’s.[4] Europe as a whole received some $7.8 billion between 1924 and 1930. But when these American loans dried up, as they did dramatically after 1929, Clavin asserts that problems in European economy resurfaced with a vengeance. Within the USA, up to 1933, according to Reed, [5] production at the nation’s factories, mines, and utilities fell by more than half. People’s real disposable incomes dropped 28 percent. Stock prices collapsed to one-tenth of their pre-crash height. The number of unemployed Americans rose from 1.6 million in 1929 to 12.8 million in 1933. One of every four workers was out of a job at the Depression’s nadir, and ugly rumours of  revolt simmered for the first time since the Civil War. The critical question involves being definitive about the attributable causes of the severe economic pervasive conditions and their consequent social ramifications globally. It is problematic to determine causality and which antecedents have the dubious credit of creating the severity of 1932-1933. A range of social and economic factors is cited selectively by proponents of polarised political positions. Particular economic paradigms are entertained, so that the mistakes of the Great Depression, as the theorist interprets them; may be used as a precedent to lend intellectual support to a particular approach to economic theory, providing ‘a correct approach’ to present day and future economic challenges. In simple terms, two broad approaches to economic function, include classical economics, which examines macroeconomic effects of money supply and the supply of gold which backed many currencies before the Great Depression, including production and consumption. Conversely, structural theories, including those of institutional economics, point to under consumption and over investment (economic bubble), malfeasance by bankers and industrialists or incompetence by government officials.[6] These two broad interpretive frameworks, within which the Great Depression is understood, have stifled insight into the genuine causes of the depression as a whole as well as the reasons underpinning the severity of 1932-1933 in particular. Entrenched and formulaic economic explanations, are often little more than efforts to politicise the depression, in order to reinforce the mantra of left or right wing political philosophies. This practice can be well illustrated, through the writings of economists such as Paul Ormerod, chairman of an organisation known as Post-Orthodox Economics. Ormerod contends, that, â€Å" the left tends to see the current crisis as a failure of markets. Whether the call is for more or, in Third Way style, better regulation, the argument is the same: the unrestricted workings of markets are causing problems, so governments must step in to show that they can run them better. But all this misses the most important point. The Great Depression of the 1930s was not primarily a failure of markets but a failure of government. The Federal Reserve slashed the money supply at a time when it should have expanded it. This is the lesson to be learnt. Forget fears of inflation. Expand the money supply to cut off the risk of a second great recession. [7] Ormerod’s position finds support from the Mackinac Centre for Public Policy: Myths of the Great Depression, by free market economist and historian Lawrence W. Reed. Reed states in a nonchalant manner that the mythical explanation of the depression is, â€Å"An important pillar of capitalism, the stock market, crashed and dragged America into depression. President Herbert Hoover, an advocate of â€Å"hands-off,† or laissez-faire, economic policy, refused to use the power of government to intervene in the economy and conditions worsened as a result. It was up to Hoover’s successor, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, to ride in on the white horse of government intervention and steer the nation toward recovery.[8] Unabashed, Reed continues to emphatically advocate governmental responsibility for the onset or deterioration of the Great Depression within USA, and one could safely assume, Reed would apply his free marketeering philosophy, to equally account for the severity of the depression in other democratic nations in the 1930’s. Reed asserts [9] in â€Å"1929, the wild manipulation of the currency by the Federal Reserve shows that government, far from a disinterested bystander, was the principal culprit of the stock market crash.† Furthermore, he attributes blame to politically strategic blunders throughout the 1920’s within the USA. â€Å"The genesis of the Great Depression lay in the inflationary monetary policies of the U. S. government in the 1920s. It was prolonged and exacerbated by a litany of political missteps: trade-crushing tariffs, incentive-sapping taxes, mind-numbing controls on production and competition, senseless destruction of crops and cattle, and coe rcive labour laws, to recount just a few. It was not the free market which produced 12 years of agony; rather, it was political bungling on a scale as grand as there ever was.[10] Within the United Kingdom, renowned writer George Orwell provides a poignant anecdote in his 1936 book ‘Road to Wigan Pier’, indicating the severity of the Great Depression for unemployed men and women in northern England. : Several hundred men risk their lives and several hundred women scrabble in the mud for hours searching eagerly for tiny chips of coal in slagheaps so they could heat their homes. For them, this arduously-gained free coal was more important almost than food.[11] Indeed, according to Rothermund, in Britain, there existed a â€Å"conflict of interests among three major groups: the City of London as the centre of world finance, British industry, and labour. The City had reached its aim of returning to the gold standard which enabled it to transact international business along the lines of prewar times. The return to the gold standard at the prewar parity in 1925 had been a mistake, as it forced the City to adopt a deflationary course so as to support the overvalued pound. This affected British industry both with regard to its export position and its access to credit.[12] Rothermund again contends, â€Å"While the deflationary policy of the Bank of England had already made matters worse, when the bank had to raise its discount rate at a time of intense American speculation, the tension increased.† According to Clavin,[13] between 1924 and 1929 over 40 countries returned to gold or joined the system for the first time. This was done in the belief it would stabilise product price and promote international trade. Nonetheless, by the early 1930’s many countries began to abandon the gold standard Rothermund notes, â€Å"Keynes had written to Macdonald in August 1931, advising him that the game was up and that Great Britain should abandon the gold standard and head a new sterling bloc.†[14] The severity of the Great Depression, can also have regard to the societal regression it promoted.[15] Export and credit failure, meant nations adopted protectionist mindsets, helping to spawn totalitarian regimes in Europe from the mid 1930’s. Claven contends that loss of US credit, determined that countries had to raise interest rates, thus making it more difficult for businesses and farms to borrow money at precisely the time they needed to do so to combat depression. Governments, too, began to feel the squeeze as their levels of revenue from taxes fell dramatically just when they needed to spend more money on unemployment benefit and public work schemes to mop up unemployment and to kick-start recovery. Across Europe, parliaments like Britain and Germany in the summer of 1931 became deadlocked over the issue of government spending. As confidence dropped, governments, companies and individuals cut back on spending. Demand for industrial and agricultural products dried up, and this caused prices to fall still further. By the end of 1930 the price of wheat sold on the Liverpool exchange had fallen by 50 per cent and the price of meat by 40 per cent. Desperate to protect their own markets from the threat of cheap foreign imports being dumped on them, levels of trade protection began to rise dramatically. By 1932 France had introduced strict quotas on over 3,000 different products entering France, and German tariffs rose by 50 per cent after 1929. Most startling was Britains retreat into protection in the autumn of 1931, ending a commitment to the ethos of Free Trade that had lasted 85 years. The world was now divided into competing economic blocs. Countries which depended heavily on the export of agricultural produce were especially hard hit because agricultural prices fell more dramatically than those of industrial goods. A Polish farmer who paid 100 kg of rye to buy a new plough in 1928, now found that the same plough cost 270 kg. By the summer of 1931, the European economy began to crack under the strain of the continued fall in prices, the lack of demand and spiralling levels of unemployment. Economic, political and financial pressures combined to produce a financial crisis that swept across Europe like a flash flood. In countries, like Austria and Germany, where the banks had a particularly close relationship with industry, the collapse of private companies forced banks, too, to shut up shop. With some of Europes most prestigious banking houses facing ruin, the German and Austrian governments were forced to become directly involved in managing the financial system. They also introduced exchange controls to stop the further export of gold or foreign currency from German or Austrian banks to banks in Switzerland or Britain. McGovern contends that the great fear among consumers, induced by the failure of the stock market and over 5,000 commercial banks between 1929 and 1932, prompted cutbacks in their spending. This, in turn, led to contractions in capital goods industries (especially steel and their suppliers), in construction, mining, and transportation—hence, to broad layouts of workers. The downward curve then accelerated, with unemployment leading to further cutbacks in consumption and consequently also production. [16] Finally, it is worth pointing out that since the effects of the depression were challenging within some parts of Britain and devastating in others, it is clear that its impact was not uniform, but reactive to particular social, political and economic circumstances. Areas heavily dependent upon the shipping industry, such as Newcastle –Upon- Tyne, were decimated by the events. The later Jarrow Street March in 1936, saw the frustration spill over into public, unified action, on behalf of ship workers and miners, who marched from the North- East of England to Parliament to lobby for change. Bibliography Books Rothermund, D. The Global Impact of the Great Depression, 1929-1939, London, Routledge, 1996. Claven, P. The Great Depression in Europe, 1929-1939 in History Review, History Today Ltd 2000 McGovern, J. And a Time for Hope: Americans in the Great Depression, Praeger, 2000 Orwell, G. Road to Wigan Pier, Left Book Club, London, 1937, Smiley, G. Rethinking the Great Depression: A New View of its Causes and Consequences, Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2002 Articles Ormerod, P New Statesman, Vol. 127, October 9, 1998 J. Powell, Did the New Deal Actually Prolong the Great Depression? The American Enterprise, Vol. 13, March 2002 Websites http://eldoradogold.net/pdf/October%202005/GreatDepression.pdf Mackinac Center for Public Policy: Myths of the Great Depression. 2000 accessed 23 March 2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom accessed 23 March 2007 1 Footnotes [1] P. Claven, The Great Depression in Europe, 1929-1939 in History Review, History Today Ltd 2000, p. 30 [2] Ibid p.4 [3] J. Powell, Did the New Deal Actually Prolong the Great Depression? The American Enterprise, Vol. 13, March 2002 [4] P Claven The Great Depression in Europe, 1929-1939 in History Review, History Today Ltd 2000, p. 31 [5] L.W. Reed. Myths of the Great Depression, at http://eldoradogold.net/pdf/October%202005/GreatDepression.pdf, Mackinac Centre for Public Policy, 2000 [6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom [7] P. Ormerod; New Statesman, Vol. 127, October 9, 1998, p.1 [8] L.W. Reed. Myths of the Great Depression, at http://eldoradogold.net/pdf/October%202005/GreatDepression.pdf, Mackinac Centre for Public Policy, 2000 [9] Ibid p.6 [10] Ibid p 16 [11] G. Orwell, Road to Wigan Pier, 1937, Left Book Club [13] P. Claven, The Great Depression in Europe, 1929-1939 in History Review, History Today Ltd 2000, p. 30 [15] P Claven The Great Depression in Europe, 1929-1939 in History Review, History Today Ltd 2000, p. 30 [16] J. McGovern, And a Time for Hope: Americans in the Great Depression , Praeger, 2000